Literacy & English Language Arts
Part-1 test- Multi-Subject: NYSTCE
Word Roots:
Affixes in the English language are morphemes that are added to words to create related but different words. Derivational affixes form new words based on and related to the original words. For example, the affix-ness added to the end of the adjective happy forms the noun happiness. Inflectional affixes form different grammatical versions of words. For example, the plural affix- s changes the singular noun book to the plural noun books, and the past tense affix - ed changes the present tense verb look to the past tense looked. Prefixes are affixes placed in front of words. For example, heat means to make hot; preheat means to heat in advance. Suffixes are affixes placed at the ends of words. The happiness example above contains the suffix - ness. Circumflexes add parts both before and after words, such as how light becomes enlighten with the prefix en- and the suffix - en. Interfixes create compound words via central affixes: speed and meter become speedometer via the intermix -0-.
Determine Meaning Of Words:
Many English words were formed from combining multiple sources. For example, the Latin habere means "to have", and the prefixes in- and I'm- mean a lack or prevention of something, as in insufficient and imperfect. Latin combined in-with habere to form inhere, whose past participle was inhibits. This is the origin of the English word inhibit, meaning to prevent from having, Hence by knowing the meanings of both the prefix and the root, one can decipher the word meaning. In Greek, the root enkephalo- refers to the brain. Many medical terms are based on this root, such as encephalitis and hydrocephalus. Understanding the prefix and suffix meanings (-itis means inflammation; hydro-means water) allows a person to deduce that encephalitis refers brain inflammation and hydrocephalus refers to water in the brain.
Prefixes:
Knowing common prefixes is helpful for all readers as they try to determining meanings or definitions of unfamiliar words. For example, a common word used when cooking is preheat. Knowing that pre-means in advance can also inform them that presume means to assume in advance, that prejudice means advance judgment, and that this understanding can be applied to many other words beginning with pre-. Knowing that the prefix dis-indicates opposition informs the meanings of words like disbar, disagree, disestablish, and many more, knowing dis- means dad, impaired, abnormal, or difficult informs informs dyslogistic, dysfunctional, dysphagia and dysplasia.
Suffixes:
In English, certain suffixes generally indicate both that a word is a noun, and that the noun represents a state of being or quality. For example, -ness is commonly used to change an adjective into its noun form, as with happy and happiness, nice and niceness, and so on. The suffix- ion is commonly used to transform a verb into its noun form, as with converse and conversation or move and motion. Thus, if readers are unfamiliar with the second form of a word, knowing the meaning of the transforming suffix can help them determine meaning.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
When you understand how words relate to each other, you will discover more in a passage. This is explained by understanding synonyms (same meaning) and antonyms (opposite meaning). Example, Dry and arid are synonyms and dry and wet are antonyms.
Denotative VS. Connotative Meaning:
The denotative meaning of a word is the literal meaning. The connotative meaning goes beyond the denotative meaning to include the emotional reaction that a word may invoke. The connotative meaning often takes the denotative meaning a step further due to associations the reader makes with the denotative meaning. Reader s can differentiate between the denotative and connotative meanings by first recognizing how authors use each meaning. Most non-fiction, for example, is fact-based and authors do not use flowery , figurative language. The reader can assume that the writer is used the denotative meaning of words. In fiction, the author may use the connotative meaning. Readers can determine whether the author is using the denotative or connotative meaning of a word by implementing context clues.
A word's denotation is simply its objective dictionary definition. However, its connotation refers to the subjective associations, often emotional, that specific words evoke in listers and readers. Two or more words can have the same dictionary meanings, but very different connotations. Writers use diction to convey various nuances of thought and emotion by selecting synonyms for engine is naturally greasy; in this sense, "greasy" is a neutral term. But when a person's smile, appearance, a car engine is naturally greasy; in this sense, "greasy" is a neutral term. But when a person's smile, appearance, or clothing is described as "greasy", it has a negative connotation. Some words have even gained additional or different meanings over time. For example, awful used to be to describe things that evoked a sense of awe. When awful is separated into its root word, awe, and suffix, -ful, it can be understood to mean "full of awe. " However, the word is now commonly used to describe things that repulsion, terror, or another intense, negative reaction.
Using Context to Determine Meaning
Readers of all levels will encounter words that they have either never seen or have encountered only on a limited basis. The best way to define a word in context is to look for nearby words that can assist in revealing the meaning of the word. For instance, unfamiliar nouns are often accompanied by examples that provide a definition. Consider the following sentence: Tom arrived at the party in hilarious garb: a leopard-print shirt, buckskin trousers, and bright green sneakers. If a reader was unfamiliar with the meaning of garb, he or she could read the examples (i.e. a leopard-print shirt, buckskin trousers, and bright green sneakers) and quickly determine that the word means clothing. Examples will not always be this obvious. Consider this sentence: Parsley, lemon, and flowers were just a few of items he used as garnishes. Here, the word garnishes is exemplified by parsley, lemon, and flowers. Readers who have eaten in a variety of restaurants will probably be able to identify a garnish as a something used to decorate a plate.
Using Contrast in Context clues:
In addition to looking at the context of a passage, readers can use contrast to define an unfamiliar word in context. In many sentences, the author will not describe the unfamiliar word directly; instead, he or she will describe the opposite of the unfamiliar word. Thus, you are provided with some information that will bring you closer to defining the word. Consider the following example: Despite his interestlligence, Hector's low brow and bad posture made him look obtuse. The author writes that Hector's appearance does not convey interestlligence. Therefore, obtuse must mean unintelligent. Here is another example; Despite the horrible weather, we were beatific about our trip to Alaska. The word despite indicates that the speaker's feeling were at odds with the weather. Since the weather is described as horrible, then beatific must mean something positive.
Substitution To Find Meaning:
In some cases, there will be very few contextual clues to help a reader define the meaning of an unfamiliar word. When this happens, one strategy that readers may employ is substitution. a good reader will brainstorm some possible synonyms for the given word, and he or she will substitute these words into the sentence. If the sentence and the Surrounding passage continue to make sense, then the substitution has revealed at least some information about the unfamiliar word. Consider the sentence: Frank's admonition rang in her ears as she climbed the mountain. A reader unfamiliar with admonition might come up with some substitutions like vow, promise, advice, complaint, or compliment. All of these words make general sense of the sentence, though their meanings are diverse. However, this process has suggested that an admonition is some sort of message. The substitution strategy is rarely able to pinpoint a precise definition, but this process can be effective as a last resort.
Occasionally, you will be able to define an unfamiliar word by looking at the descriptive words in the context. Consider the following sentence: Fred dragged the recalcitrant boy kicking and screaming up the stairs. The words dragged, kicking, and screaming all suggest that the boy does not want to go up the stairs. The reader may assume that recalcitrant means something like unwilling or protesting. In this example, an unfamiliar adjective was identified.
Additionally, using description to define an unfamiliar noun is a common practice compared to unfamiliar adjectives, as in this sentence: Don's wrinkled frown and constantly shaking first identified him as a curmudgeon of the first order. Don is described as having a wrinkled frown and constantly shaking first, suggesting that an unfamiliar word, but they at least give the reader some clues.
Words with Multiple Meanings:
When a word has more than one meaning, readers can have difficulty determining how the word is being used in a given sentence. For instance, the verb cleave, can mean either join or separate. When readers come upon this word, they will have to select the definition that makes the most sense. Consider the following sentence: Hermione's knife cleaved the bread cleanly. Since a knife cannot join bread together, the word must indicate separation. A slightly more difficult example would be the sentence: The birds cleaved to one another as they flew from the oak tree. Immediately, the presence of the words to one another should suggest that in this sentence cleave is being used to mean join. Discovering the intent of a word with multiple meanings requires the same cleave is being used to mean join. Discovering the intent of a word with multiple meanings requires the same tricks as defining an unknown word: look for contextual clues and evaluate the substituted words.
Context Clues To Help Determine Meanings of Words:
In readers simply bypass unknown words, they can reach unclear conclusions about what they read. However, looking for the definition of every unfamiliar word in the dictionary can slow their reading progress. Moreover, the dictionary may list multiple definitions for a word, so readers must search the word's context for meaning. Hence context is important to new vocabulary regardless of reader methods. Four types of context clues are examples, definitions, descriptive words, and opposites. Authors authors actually supply a definition of a word they use, which is especially true in informational and technical texts. Authors may use descriptive words that elaborate upon a vocabulary word that just used. Authors may also use opposites with negation that help define meaning.
Examples & Definitions:
An author may use a word and then give examples that illustrates its meaning. Consider this text: "Teachers who do not know how to use sign language can help students who are deaf or hard of hearing understand certain instructions by using gestures instead, like pointing their fingers to indicate which direction to look or go; holding up a hand, palm outward, to indicate stopping; holding the hands flat, palms up, curling a finger toward oneself in a beckoning motion to indicate 'come here'; or curling all fingers toward oneself repeatedly to indicate 'come on', 'more', or continue." The author of this text has used the word "gestures" and then followed it with examples, so a reader unfamiliar with the word could deduce from the examples that "gestures" means "hand motions." Readers can find examples by looking for signal words "for example," "For instance," "like", "such as," and "e.g".
While readers sometimes have to look for definitions of unfamiliar words in a dictionary or do some work to determine a word's meaning from its surrounding context, at other times an author may make it easier for readers by defining certain words. For example, an author may write, "The company did not have sufficient capital, that is, available money, to continue operations." The author defined "capital" as "available money," and heralded the definition with the phrase "that is." Another way that authors supply word definitions is with appositive comes after the vocabulary word it defines and is enclosed within two commas. For example, an author may write, "The Indians introduced the Pilgrims to pemmican, cakes they made of lean meat dried and mixed with fat, which proved greatly beneficial to keep settlers from starving while trapping. " In this example, the appositive phrase following "preceding "which" defines the word "pemmican."
Descriptions:
When readers encounter a word they do not recognize in a text, the author may expand on that word to illustrate it better. While the author may do this to make the prose more picturesque and vivid, the reader can also take advantage of this description to provide context clues to the meaning of the unfamiliar word. For example, an author may write. "The man sitting next to me on the airplane was obese. His shirt stretched across his vast expanse of flesh, strained almost to bursting." The descriptive second sentence elaborates on and helps to define the previous sentence's word "obese" to mean extremely fat. A reader unfamiliar with the word "repugnant" can decipher its meaning through an author's accompanying description: "The way the child grimaced and shuddered as he swallowed the medicine showed that its taste was particularly repugnant."
Opposites:
Text authors sometimes introduce a contrasting or opposing idea before or after a concept they present. They may do this to emphasize or heighten the idea they present by contrasting it with something that is the reverse. However, readers can also use these context clues to understand familiar words. For example, an author may write, "our conversation was not cheery. We sat and talked very solemnly about his experience and a number of similar events." The reader who is not familiar with the word "solemnly" can deduce by the author's preceding use of "not cheery" that solemn" means the opposite of cheery or happy, so it must mean serious or sad. Or if someone writes, "Don't condemn his entire project because you couldn't find anything good to say about it," readers unfamiliar with "condemn" can understand from the sentence structure that it means the opposite of saying anything good, so it must mean reject, dismiss, or disapprove. "Entire" adds another context clue, meaning total or complete rejection.
Syntax to Determine Part of Speech and Meanings of Words:
Syntax refers to sentence structure and word order. Suppose that a reader encounters an unfamiliar word when reading a text. To illustrate, consider an invented word like "splotch." If this word is used in a sentence like "Please splotch that ball to me," the reader can assume from syntactic context that "splotch" is a verb. We would not use a noun, adjective, adverb, or preposition with the object "that ball," and the prepositional phrase "to me" further indicates "splotch" represents an action. However, in the sentence, "Please hand that splunch to me," the reader can assume that "splotch" is a noun. Demonstrative adjectives like "that" modify nouns. Also, we hand someone something - a thing being a noun; we do not hand someone a verb, adjective, or adverb. Some sentences contain further clues. For example, from the sentence, "The princess wore the glittering splotch on her head," the reader can deduce that it is a crown, tiara, or something similar from the syntactic context, without knowing the word.
Syntax To Indicate Different Meanings of Similar Sentences:
The syntax, or structure, of a sentence affords grammatical cues that aid readers in comprehending the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences in the texts that they read. Seemingly minor differences in how the words or phrases in a sentence are ordered can make major differences in meaning. For example, two sentences can use exactly the same words but have different meanings based on the word order:
* "The man with a broken arm sat in a chair."
* "The man sat in a chair with a broken arm."
While both sentences indicate that a man sat in a chair, differing syntax indicates whether the man's or chair's arm was broken.
Determining Meaning of Phrases and Paragraphs:
Science Of Reading:
Sample Question & Answers:
1. What is the primary goal of Governor Hochul's Back to Basics initiative?
Ans: To improve reading proficiency for all New York State children by focusing on the six components of the Science of Reading.
2. Which approach emphasizes systematically teaching the relationship between letters and sounds to help students decode words?
Ans: Phonics-based approach
3. In contrast to phonic-based instruction, the whole language approach emphasizes which of the following?
ANs: Teaching reading through meaningful and rich texts.
4. The Simple view of Reading suggeststs that proficient reading is a product of two components. What are they?
Ans: Decoding and language comprehension
5. Scarborough's Reading Rope illustrates that skilled reading requires two interwoven strands. What are these strands?
Ans: Word recognition and language comprehension
6. Which of the following best describes the Active view of Reading?
Ans: Reading is an active process where students construct meaning using cognitive strategiesgies, context, and engagement with the text.
7. Which resource is produced by Nonie Lesaux in collaboration with NYSED to help educatetors gain a deeper understanding of the Science of Reading?
Ans: NYSED Literacy Briefs
8. According to Scarborough's reading Rope, which component of reading supports automaticity and ease with the text?
Ans: Fluency
9. The Reading Wars primarily revolve around which two apposing view of reading instruction?
Ans: Phonics-based vs. whole language
10. What is the key takeaway from the Science of reading research ?
Ans: Reading is not a natural process, and it requires explicit instruction in phonics, phonemic awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
Q.1. Which novel is credited as the origin of the bildungsroman, or the "education novel" genre?
Ans: Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre
( Bildungsroman is German for "education novel." This term is also used in English to describe so-called "apprenticeship" novels focusing on coming- of-age stories, including youth's struggles and searches for things such as identity, spiritual understanding, or the meaning in life. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre (1796) is credited as the origin of this genre. Two of Charles Dickens' novels, David Copperfield (1850)and Great Expectations (1861), also fit this form. H.G. Wells wrote bildugsromans about questing for apprenticeships to address the complications of modern life in Joan and Peter (1918) and from a Utopian perspective in The Dream (1924). School bildungsroman include Thomas Hughes' Tom Brown's School Days (1857) and Alain- Fournier's Le Grand Meaulnes (1913). Many Hermann Hesse novels, including Damian, Steppenwolf, Siddhartha, Magister Audi, and Beneath the wheel are bildungsroman about a struggling, searching youth. Samuel Butler's The Way of All Flesh (1903) and James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) are two modern examples. Variations include J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye (1951), set both within and beyond school; and William Golding's Lord of the Flies (1955), a novel not set in a school but one that is a coming-of -age story nonetheless.
Q.2. Which of the following is considered to be a roman a sled, or a "novel with a key"?
Ans: George Orwell's Animal Farm (1945)
( Roman a clef is French for "novel with a key." It refers to books that require a real-life frame of reference, or key, for full comprehension. In Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, the Nun's Priest's Tale contains details that confuse readers unaware of history about the Earl of Bolingbroke's involvement in an assassination plot. Other literary works fitting this form include John Dryden's political satirical poem "Absalom and Achitophel" (1681), Jonathan Swift's satire "A Tale of a Tub" (1704), and George Orwell's political allegory Animal Farm (1945), all of which cannot be understood completely without knowing their camouflaged historical contents. Roman a clefs disguise truths too dangerous for authors to state directly.
Q.3. Unrhymed iambic pentameter is also known as which of the following?Ans: Blank verse
(Poems may be in free verse, metered but unrhymed, rhymed but without meter, or using both rhyme and meter. In English, the most common meter is iambic pentameter. Unrhymed iambic pentameter is called blank verse.
Q.4. Which of the following refers to a mid-verse pause that interrupts flow?
Ans: Caesura
(A caesura is a pause in mid-verse.)
Q.5. A villanelle is a nineteen-line poem that consists of which of the following?
Ans: Five tercets and one quatrain
( A villanelle is a 19-line poem composed of five tercets and one quatrain. The defining characteristic is the repetition: two lines appear repeatedly throughout the poem.)
Q.6. Which of the following best describes Aristotle's concept of hamartia in works of tragedy?
Ans: A fatal flaw
(In his Poetics, Aristotle identified various elements that appear in Greek tragedies:
* Anagnorisis: Meaning tragic insight or recognition, this is a moment of realization by a tragic hero or heroine that he or she has become enmeshed in a "web of fate."
* Catharsis: Meaning an emotional release on the part of the audience.
*Hubris: While often called "pride," this is actually translated as "violent transgression," and signifies an arrogant overstepping of moral or cultural bounds- the sin of the tragic hero who over-presumes or over-aspires.
*Mimesis: This refers to the idea that works of art reflect the real world, including individuals, nature, human behavior, and social order.
* Nemesis: translated as "retribution," this represents the cosmic punishment or payback that the tragic hero ultimately receives for committing hubristic acts.
*Peripateia: Literally "turning," this is a plot reversal consisting of a tragic hero's pivotal action, which changes his or her status from safe to endangered.
*Spectacle: Visual elements of the story, in the context of dramatic plays.
Q.7. Who theorized that a tragedy must involve some circumstance in which two values, or two rights, are fatally at odds with one another and conflict directly?
ans: Hegel
(Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) proposed a different theory of tragedy than Aristotle (384-322 BC), which was also very influential. Whereas Aristotle's criteria involved character and plot, Hegel defined tragedy as a dynamic conflict of opposite forces or rights. For example, if an individual believes in the moral philosophy of the conscientious objector (i.e. that fighting in wars is morally wrong) but is confronted with being drafted into military service, this conflict would fit Hegel's definition of a tragic plot premise. Hegel theorized that circumstance in which two values are fatally at odds with one another and conflict directly. Hegel did not view this as good triumphing over evil, or evil winning out over good fighting against another good unto death. He saw this conflict of two goods as truly tragic. In ancient Greed playwright Sophocles' tragedy Antigone, the main character experiences this tragic conflict between her public duties and her family and religious responsibilities.)
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